Before the revelations of modern medicine, illness of any kind was a very mysterious and inexplicable phenomenon, accompanied by little hope of a solution to relieve or eliminate illness. At that time when no one knew the origin of most diseases, much less how to cure them or take preventative measures, diseases of varying severity had much more importance than today due to their inexplicable nature, which made it a valuable literary tool. in terms of allegorical and metaphorical contexts. Henry James was one of many 19th-century authors who used illness as a meaningful symbol juxtaposed with underlying conflict in his writings, most notably in his acclaimed 1878 short story, Daisy Miller: A Study. This story tells of several American characters in a European setting, some expatriates and some vacationers, all with varying degrees of familiarity and acceptance of European sociocultural norms. The conflict focuses on the clash between European and American social customs, brought about by the promiscuous behavior of free-spirited and strong-willed Daisy Miller and her interactions with American expatriates such as Winterbourne and Mrs. Walker while she travels in Europe with his mother and younger brother. Many of these Americans face challenges related to their health, just as they face challenges with European society. Those who disagree with the restrictive and elitist framework find themselves in physical distress, and only those who have fully assimilated into the culture and its expectations escape illness. Thus, in James's Daisy Miller, much like how the body feels the ill effects when it rejects a virus, the incursion of ill health reflects a resistance to the conservative European environment. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on “Why Violent Video Games Should Not Be Banned”? Get an original essay The first and most significant example of this thinking is the tragic and sudden death of Daisy Miller from Roman fever, also known as malaria. Even the name of the disease is entirely apt: malaria literally translates to “bad air,” as it was thought to come from a poisonous nighttime climate. If Daisy suffers physically from the noxious vapors, she also suffers from the “bad air” of those who know her and who make her the object of harmful gossip and disgust (Foster). The fever that kills Daisy is a lot like "the overheated state that drives her frantically to join the elite ("We're dying to be exclusive," she says early on) while at the same time provoking disapproval Europeanized Americans who reside permanently in Rome at all times” (Foster). Daisy is so quintessentially American that, without a willingness to adapt to the customs of European society, she increasingly becomes the object of scandal due to her flirtatious ways and open affection for several gentlemen. In fact, she openly denounces the morals of European women when Mrs. Walker, a Europeanized American and friend of both Winterbourne and the Miller family, begs her with cold fury to leave the company of her Italian companion, Mr. Giovanelli, who Daisy left with. walk alone in the evening. Mrs. Walker demands that Daisy get in the car with her and exclaims that Daisy is ruining her reputation with her reckless actions (James 446). Daisy later confided to Winterburne: “As far as I know, young girls in this country have a terribly dark time; I don't see why I should change my habits for them” (James450), thus affirming its opposition to good European practices. It is this feeling that grows considerably as Daisy becomes the talk of the town to the disapproval of all those who value European principles for young women and ultimately seals her fate; Because Daisy never gives up her rebellion against cultural expectations and remains steadfast in her own beliefs, she suffers the most from the illness and ultimately succumbs to it. Although she is the most prominent example, Daisy is not the only American character to contrast with the Old World setting and suffer from illness. His mother, Mrs. Miller, is neurotic about his many ailments and delights in talking about them to anyone who will listen. She is said to suffer from "dyspepsia" and, as Daisy claims she never sleeps, she often complains of fatigue, often requiring her to stay inside their hotel for long periods to avoid its disturbing and unfamiliar environment during their vacation. These symptoms mark Mrs. Miller's inability to cope and behave according to European standards, and she even blames the European climate for her discomfort – "I have liver trouble...I think it's the climate, it's less invigorating as Schenectady” (James 440). ). Similarly, Mrs. Miller's son and Daisy's younger brother, Randolph, also states that he suffers from dyspepsia and shares his mother's opinion in blaming their location for the loss of his teeth, although this is a phenomenon normal for a boy of his age, saying: “It’s that old Europe. . It's the climate that brings them out. In America they did not go out” (James 422). Daisy's family members suffer these minor afflictions because their very being is in opposition to what might be expected of upper-class people in Europe. Mrs. Miller is responsible for her children's education because she does not fit Old World ideals; she does not reprimand Daisy's flirtatious and unacceptable actions nor Randolph's rude behaviors and remarks. She treats their courtier, Eugenio, as a member of their family, which was considered unbecoming for the expatriate elite. In the words of Winterbourne's aunt, Mrs. Costello, "They are very common...They are the sort of Americans that one does one's duty by not—by not accepting" (James 428). In the same way that Mrs. Miller's illnesses keep her confined to her hotel, away from the judgmental gaze of the population, Mrs. Costello is "too proud to associate with Americans who visit the continent and yet have no been accepted by the European society or by society. Europeanized Americans, developed headaches and withdrew from society completely” (Houghton). Although she belonged to a large social circle in the United States, she was not socially successful in Europe and her headaches represent her unconscious desire to hide from a society that did not meet her expectations (Houghton ). Mrs. Miller, Randolph, and Mrs. Costello are Americans displaced in an environment that does not fully accept them, and so they are prey to discomforts that allow them to shelter from their surroundings. In contrast, American expatriates Winterbourne and Mrs. Costello Les Walker thrive in their European citizenship because they have absorbed social norms and live according to the standards expected at the time. Winterbourne functions well in his place of residence in Geneva, where he spends a lot of time "studying", that is, serving as a lover to a much older, probably married, foreign woman (James 422). This was a common custom in Europe at that time; while young single women were expected to remain the perfect image of chastity and innocence, it.