After Suharto ended his long dictatorial rule in 1998, religious and ethnic conflicts increased significantly in Indonesia. Author Jacques Bertrand argues that religious and ethnic conflicts defined the Indonesian national model. This gave rise to three critical moments during Suharto's withdrawal from sovereign power. The three critical moments define the “terms of Indonesian citizenship and give meaning to the structure and procedures of an institution” (Bertrand, 20). When Suharto left power, major political and social changes shook Indonesia, threatening the Indonesian kingdom. The Indonesian people have struggled to define their sense of nationalism. The Indonesian national model was a set of norms about the nature of the nation, its composition and its boundaries. The stakeholders agreed on the institutional frameworks or those imposed by political power. Surprisingly, ethnic groups tend to fear losing the position they held or struggling for the betterment of the country. President Suharto ruled Indonesia for more than 33 years. Under his rule, Indonesia transformed from an authoritarian state to an autocratic state. The conflict that erupted pitted the central government against separatist movements and also included localized religious and ethnic feuds. Surprisingly, these riots spread to eastern Indonesia, which cast doubt on the balance of the Indonesian nation. Bertrand recalls that in 1995 and 1996, the riots in Situbondo, Tasikmalya and Java caused countless deaths and destroyed private property. In 2000, more than 10,000 people were killed by ethnic violence in Indonesia. The national model excluded certain groups from a broadly inclusive concept middle of paper......an action aimed at claiming ethnic representation and access to resources. Islamists wanted to reopen questions related to the role of Islam in this policy: for example, the Dayaks refused to continue to be marginalized, the East Timorese took the opportunity to push for independence , and the Acehnese survived and regained their independence in Indonesia. Bertrand that past choices affect current results. He notes that “national models based on single nations are cultural criteria that exclude marginalized groups and can predict violence” (Bertrand, 223). These critical moments were key factors in generating ethnic and religious conflicts in Indonesia. Indonesia has been greatly affected by these incidents and is still struggling to survive in this political turmoil. Works cited Bertrand, Jacques. Nationalism and ethnic conflicts. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1995.